Strategic Assessment
- Book: Israeli National Intelligence Culture: Problem-Solving, Exceptionalism, and Pragmatism
- By: Itai Shapira
- Publisher: Routledge
- Year: 2025
- pp: 258
Itai Shapira, a retired colonel from Israeli Defense Intelligence (IDI), has over 25 years of experience at tactical, operational, and strategic levels. His book expands on his doctoral dissertation to offer a unique insight into Israeli intelligence culture, by analyzing the origins, traits and manifestations of the Israeli case. Shapira, an Israeli practitioner-turned-scholar, explores how Israelis perceive and practice intelligence, moving beyond the traditional historical focus seen in most books on the subject. The book is based on 34 interviews with elite active and former Israeli experts from Israel Defense Intelligence (IDI)[1], the Mossad (Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations) and the Shabak,[2] conducted between 2021 and 2023 (prior to the Swords of Iron War). A full list of the interviewees can be found in the Appendix on page 248.
The book is structured to explore Israeli intelligence culture through theoretical frameworks, historical context, and policy-oriented analysis. The first chapter, “Frameworks,” discusses national intelligence cultures, the research approach and the research questions of the book. The second chapter explores the structure of the Israeli intelligence system since its foundation, by providing a short historical outline and detailing the role of each organization (IDI, Mossad and Shabak), the coordination between them, and their pivotal role within Israel’s national security framework. The IDI holds an elevated status and is responsible for Israel’s national intelligence evaluations, as opposed to other countries, where civilian organizations perform that function.[3] Meanwhile, the Mossad specializes in foreign intelligence, covert operations and both human and technological intelligence gathering, whereas the Shabak is primarily responsible for internal security, counterterrorism and counterintelligence within Israel and the West Bank. The third chapter examines the origins of Israeli national intelligence culture, focusing on strategic culture (including history, society, religion, the constant sense of existential threats, exceptionalism, securitization, military culture, and the Israeli security doctrine), political and organizational culture, as well as the influence of significant traumas. The fourth chapter argues that Israeli intelligence culture reflects broader national values, emphasizing informality, flexibility, and bottom-up initiatives. Practitioners view the lack of structured management as a strength that encourages collaboration and innovation, preferring to present differing assessments to maintain professional independence and integrity, rather than enforcing a unified national intelligence stance. Next, the fifth chapter deals with the close connection Israeli intelligence perceives between intelligence and decision-making, as essential for relevance and impact, emphasizing its focus on action and influence, the cultural prioritization of pragmatism and results, and the continuous shift between subcultures, balancing innovation with traditional conservatism. The sixth chapter, one of the most fascinating ones, explores how Israeli intelligence balances its traditionally artistic and intuitive approach with a growing openness to advanced technologies and scientific methods, contrasting its cultural focus on human expertise and contextual understanding with the more structured, technology-driven approaches of the U.S. and Britain. The seventh chapter explores the Israeli concept of intelligence, characterized by a pragmatic, innovation-driven approach that prioritizes practical experience and adaptive problem-solving over theoretical frameworks. This reflects a culture of improvisation and bottom-up innovation shaped by Israel’s unique security challenges, with the belief that “necessity is the mother of invention,” although there is a growing openness toward integrating theoretical perspectives. The eighth chapter highlights the contrarian thinking, moral courage, and deep sense of individual accountability and national mission embraced by Israeli intelligence officers, who serve as essential guardians of Israeli society and are driven by a strong sense of responsibility and a desire to make an impact. The book concludes with a summary of its main claims.
The main argument of Itai Shapira’s Israeli National Intelligence Culture: Problem-Solving, Exceptionalism, and Pragmatism is that Israel’s intelligence practices are deeply shaped by a distinct national intelligence culture. This culture is characterized by a focus on problem-solving, a pragmatic approach that prioritizes action over theory, and a belief in Israeli exceptionalism, which views the country’s challenges as unique and requiring innovative solutions.
The book explores the cultural foundations of the Israeli intelligence system up until the period before October 7, 2023. At the conclusion of each chapter, the author poses rhetorical questions that enhance the reader’s understanding of the broader factors that may have contributed to that event, which is likely to remain a lasting trauma for the Israeli intelligence community for years to come, viewed through the lens of the key cultural aspects of that community. It serves as a crucial reference for critical discussions within the intelligence community and among those engaged with security matters in Israel. However, despite the added value of the rhetorical questions, there are tensions between the research conducted prior to October 7 and the trauma of that day, which appears to have shaped the final version of the text, resulting in contradictions. Specifically, the introduction suggests, inter alia, that a structural intelligence failure regarding a warning from a non-commissioned officer of Unit 8200, which did not reach the appropriate leadership, points to a systemic breakdown in how critical intelligence was handled. This failure was not merely a lapse in communication, but rather reflects a deeper issue: the suppression of dissenting voices within Israeli intelligence[4]. Yet later in the book, the author highlights Israeli intelligence culture’s emphasis on individual initiative, moral courage, contrarian thinking, and the chutzpah[5] inherent in Israeli society. This contradiction between an intelligence culture that ostensibly values critical thinking and an environment where warnings were dismissed or silenced deserves further exploration. Given that the book does not aim to provide a comprehensive analysis of the October 7 failure, the section on “The October 2023 Israeli Intelligence Failure” could have been omitted to avoid complicating the narrative.
The author suggests that the intelligence failure of October 7, 2023, could drive essential reforms in the Israeli intelligence system. Key areas for change include the agencies’ competitive nature, their tendency to expand responsibilities rather than maintain a clear hierarchical structure, and a broader cultural inclination toward “extended duty,” where roles surpass conventional boundaries. Additionally, potential reforms may focus on reducing competition between cultural sub-currents, balancing interpretivism, and overcoming Israel’s reluctance to adopt theoretical frameworks and scientific methodologies in analyses, stemming from the perceived exceptionalism of its threats. Prior to October 2023, Israeli intelligence agencies were widely regarded by the public as successful, with a high and even heroic status in society. However, the aftermath of the Hamas attack has highlighted the need for a deeper examination of the intelligence apparatus, potentially leading to a new era of study into Israeli intelligence. Interestingly, while the Mossad retains its prestigious reputation, especially after the successful Operation Grim Beeper[6] in Lebanon, the main concern lies with the IDI. Once regarded as the “national estimator” in terms of its responsibility for security estimates, its status has diminished over the years, and its perceived effectiveness is now being questioned, both theoretically and practically. This shift in perception may lead to a critical reassessment of the roles and responsibilities within Israel’s intelligence community, with the aim of addressing the gaps that were exposed on October 7. Still, the IDI must continue to simultaneously support ongoing campaigns and prepare for war, balance centralized operations with empowering field intelligence units while fostering innovation without compromising traditional core skills.
Shapira’s book is highly advanced and assumes prior knowledge in intelligence studies to fully appreciate its depth and nuances. While this does not diminish its value, as it is primarily intended for experts, it may present a challenge for readers less familiar with the subject. Additionally, while the book offers valuable insights and examples from the interviewees that enhance understanding without being overly theoretical, it includes numerous names and ranks from various departments of the IDI, Mossad, and Shabak. This level of detail requires significant focus and can at times feel overwhelming or frustrating. Nevertheless, each chapter introduces new information, ensuring the content remains engaging and thought-provoking.
This book is expected to become an essential resource for academics, students, and practitioners seeking a deeper understanding of the complexities of Israel’s intelligence community and its broader implications. Through a blend of expert perspectives and analysis, Shapira offers a unique look into the cultural, organizational, and strategic forces that shape Israeli intelligence. He highlights Israel’s decentralized structure and its focus on pragmatism and innovation, offering lessons that resonate with both scholars and practitioners. Through thoughtful comparisons with intelligence models like those of the U.S. and U.K., Shapira sheds light on Israel’s strengths and challenges, while also contributing to the ongoing conversation about intelligence practices and policymaking. This work makes a meaningful contribution to the fields of intelligence and strategic studies, bridging the gap between theory and real-world application.
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[1] Israel Defense Intelligence (IDI) is the English term for Aman (אגף המודיעין, Agaf Ha-Modi'in), the Military Intelligence Directorate of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).
[2] Similarly, the Israeli Security Agency (ISA) is the English term for Shabak (שב"כ, Sherut Bitachon Klali), also known as Shin Bet.
[3] https://www.iicc.org.il/?module=category&item_id=107
[5] Defined on p.79 of the book as “a straight forward approach… practice inclination, and informality.”
[6] https://www.jfeed.com/news-israel/soxpuh